THEORIES OF PERSUASION
(how to persuade people)
In the previous post, we defined persuasion and analysed persuasion as a process in communication. In this unit, you will be exposed to the various theories of persuasion that have shaped our understanding of the concept. Suffice it to say that the study of persuasion in modern society takes into account a changed set of social circumstances – we live in a society that is very different from Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.
We live in what is called mass society. What makes mass society so different from earlier societies? Briefly, the following reasons: mass society is highly technological; it is highly bureaucratic (that is, it is run by the state) and it depends on the mass media for communication.
Persuasive messages are numerous in mass society – we are bombarded with different forms of persuasion wherever we go. Can you think of a single day in your life when mass communication has not influenced you? Even the carton from which you pour milk into your breakfast cup of tea or coffee carries an advertising slogan. The point we are making here is that most persuasion today takes place through the mass media rather than in public debate (as in the past). However, to understand persuasion in a mass communication context, we must first look at some aspects of persuasion in the interpersonal context.
By the time you go through this post you should be able to:
state the different theories of persuasion
differentiate ways of studying persuasion
outline the theoretical principles of persuasion
apply what you have learnt to everyday communication encounters.
Persuasion in an interpersonal Setting: Broad Starting Points
In every act of persuasion, the persuader has to find ways to motivate the recipients so that they will voluntarily change their attitudes or behaviour. For example, you might want a group of colleagues to be more positive about affirmative action in the workplace (an attitudinal change), or you might want to persuade someone to stop smoking (a behavioural change) or to vote in the next election (also a behavioural change). How do you go about it?
Complement: In order to motivate people, we must pay attention to both the verbal and nonverbal messages that we send. These messages must complement each other. A nonverbal message complements the verbal message when it conveys the same meaning. When you tell someone “I’m pleased to meet you” and accompany it with a warm smile, your tone of voice and facial expression (the nonverbal message) are complementing the verbal message (the spoken words).
Contradict: On the other hand, the person about to make an oral presentation who says, “I’m not nervous”, despite his trembling hands and perspiring forehead (the nonverbal message) is contradicting the verbal message. The voice may also contradict the verbal message. A change in pitch, for example, can tell us that someone is perhaps telling a lie or being sarcastic or merely teasing. Research has shown that when we are attempting to conceal the truth, our pitch tends to become higher and this contradicts the verbal message.
Verbal Messages
Before you study this section, let us sort out the information it contains so that you can see at a glance how the various subsections relate to each other.
The three aspects of verbal messages that the persuader has to consider are: human emotions, the need to be rational, and the need to show credibility.
(1) Human emotions: here, the persuader has to consider three points, namely people’s needs, attitudes and the desire for consistency in their lives.
(2) Be rational: to present a rational argument, the persuader has to present the recipients with proof to support his or her argument. The types of proof discussed in this section are evidence and reasoning.
(3) Show credibility: the three factors to consider here are the persuader’s expertise, trustworthiness and goodwill.
Consider Human Emotions
In this subsection we look at needs, attitudes and consistency.
Needs: Needs are the basic requirements of life. They can range from the physical need for food and shelter to our need for an overall sense of wellbeing based on some sort of success (for example, passing an examination). The ability to meet people’s needs is one of the best motivators of change. The person who is looking at a new car or stove because he or she needs one immediately is more likely to buy one than the person who is just thinking how nice it would be to own the latest model. An understanding of your recipient’s needs increases your chances of holding their attention and persuading them to do what you would like them to do. The classic theory that outlines basic human needs was developed by Abraham Maslow (1970). Maslow’s theory, which is not difficult to understand, is the need for self-actualisation.
This is explained below:
Self-actualisation is the need to develop our potential as human beings, to achieve our highest goals. Self-actualisaton is the least concrete of all our needs. It includes excelling in the activities you perform, expressing your creativity, and generally feeling that you are growing as an individual. Messages that focus on being “the best that you can be” appeal to self-actualisation
needs, and are often directed at writers, composers, artists, innovators, and campaign leaders. However, whereas all people are motivated by physiological needs, relatively fewer are motivated by safety needs, and the number involved in the other motivations steadily decreases to the top, where considerably few respond to self-actualisation needs. To be an effective persuader, you must bear in mind that, if your recipients have to spend most of their time and energy satisfying their physiological and safety needs, they will have little time left for higher needs. In other words, you have to consider your recipient’s needs before you can persuade them.
How do we use Maslow’s pyramid of needs in a real situation? To persuade your recipients, you need to do two things:
(1) determine which of their needs are not fulfilled or which may stop being fulfilled in the near future; and
(2) find the information or actions that will show them how to cope successfully with the problem. If you were trying to persuade an audience to join your medical aid scheme, for example, your appeal would be to the need for adequate health care. You would point out that the continued satisfaction of this need is threatened by the ever-increasing cost of medical care. You would then present convincing supporting material (proof) to persuade them that your particular medical aid scheme can look after the health care needs of their family. (We will discuss types of proof later on in this section.)
Please note that Maslow’s pyramid of needs reflects his own society and culture. Therefore, ideas from other cultures do not always agree with the order in which Maslow has placed the needs. Also, as Burton and Dimbleby (1995) explain, Maslow’s highest need is the product of a western, industrial, individualized culture where the highest value is placed on self-actualisation – being able to fulfil your personal, physical and emotional needs and desires, and ultimately achieve a sense of independence. But, then, some cultures place the highest value on qualities such as mutual cooperation or equal opportunity for all. In such cultures, repressing your personal needs and desires and focusing on the needs of other people and the community may take the highest place in the hierarchy. Consistency: Research shows that people like their lives to be predictable – we do not like unexpected change. We therefore tend to pay attention to messages that are consistent with our existing attitudes and behaviour and avoid messages that contradict or challenge them. Research also shows that our attitudes and behaviour are either in a state of consonance (balance) or dissonance (imbalance). We will feel dissonance if we are presented with information that is inconsistent with our current attitudes or behaviour. We need to be consistent otherwise
needs, and are often directed at writers, composers, artists, innovators, and campaign leaders. However, whereas all people are motivated by physiological needs, relatively fewer are motivated by safety needs, and the number involved in the other motivations steadily decreases to the top, where considerably few respond to self-actualisation needs. To be an effective persuader, you must bear in mind that, if your recipients have to spend most of their time and energy satisfying their physiological and safety needs, they will have little time left for higher needs. In other words, you have to consider your recipient’s needs before you can persuade them.
How do we use Maslow’s pyramid of needs in a real situation? To persuade your recipients, you need to do two things: (1) determine which of their needs are not fulfilled or which may stop being fulfilled in the near future; and (2) find the information or actions that will show them how to cope successfully with the problem. If you were trying to persuade an audience to join your medical aid scheme, for example, your appeal would be to the need for adequate health care. You would point out that the continued satisfaction of this need is threatened by the ever-increasing cost of medical care. You would then present convincing supporting material (proof) to persuade them that your particular medical aid scheme can look after the health care needs of their family. (We will discuss types of proof later on in this section.)
Please note that Maslow’s pyramid of needs reflects his own society and culture. Therefore, ideas from other cultures do not always agree with the order in which Maslow has placed the needs. Also, as Burton and Dimbleby (1995) explain, Maslow’s highest need is the product of a western, industrial, individualized culture where the highest value is placed on self-actualisation – being able to fulfil your personal, physical and emotional needs and desires, and ultimately achieve a sense of independence. But, then, some cultures place the highest value on qualities such as mutual cooperation or equal opportunity for all. In such cultures, repressing your personal needs and desires and focusing on the needs of other people and the community may take the highest place in the hierarchy. Consistency: Research shows that people like their lives to be predictable – we do not like unexpected change. We therefore tend to pay attention to messages that are consistent with our existing attitudes and behaviour and avoid messages that contradict or challenge them. Research also shows that our attitudes and behaviour are either in a state of consonance (balance) or dissonance (imbalance). We will feel dissonance if we are presented with information that is inconsistent with our current attitudes or behaviour. We need to be consistent otherwise
see also:
how to persuade people
(how to persuade people)
In the previous post, we defined persuasion and analysed persuasion as a process in communication. In this unit, you will be exposed to the various theories of persuasion that have shaped our understanding of the concept. Suffice it to say that the study of persuasion in modern society takes into account a changed set of social circumstances – we live in a society that is very different from Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.
We live in what is called mass society. What makes mass society so different from earlier societies? Briefly, the following reasons: mass society is highly technological; it is highly bureaucratic (that is, it is run by the state) and it depends on the mass media for communication.
Persuasive messages are numerous in mass society – we are bombarded with different forms of persuasion wherever we go. Can you think of a single day in your life when mass communication has not influenced you? Even the carton from which you pour milk into your breakfast cup of tea or coffee carries an advertising slogan. The point we are making here is that most persuasion today takes place through the mass media rather than in public debate (as in the past). However, to understand persuasion in a mass communication context, we must first look at some aspects of persuasion in the interpersonal context.
By the time you go through this post you should be able to:
state the different theories of persuasion
differentiate ways of studying persuasion
outline the theoretical principles of persuasion
apply what you have learnt to everyday communication encounters.
Persuasion in an interpersonal Setting: Broad Starting Points
In every act of persuasion, the persuader has to find ways to motivate the recipients so that they will voluntarily change their attitudes or behaviour. For example, you might want a group of colleagues to be more positive about affirmative action in the workplace (an attitudinal change), or you might want to persuade someone to stop smoking (a behavioural change) or to vote in the next election (also a behavioural change). How do you go about it?
Complement: In order to motivate people, we must pay attention to both the verbal and nonverbal messages that we send. These messages must complement each other. A nonverbal message complements the verbal message when it conveys the same meaning. When you tell someone “I’m pleased to meet you” and accompany it with a warm smile, your tone of voice and facial expression (the nonverbal message) are complementing the verbal message (the spoken words).
Contradict: On the other hand, the person about to make an oral presentation who says, “I’m not nervous”, despite his trembling hands and perspiring forehead (the nonverbal message) is contradicting the verbal message. The voice may also contradict the verbal message. A change in pitch, for example, can tell us that someone is perhaps telling a lie or being sarcastic or merely teasing. Research has shown that when we are attempting to conceal the truth, our pitch tends to become higher and this contradicts the verbal message.
Verbal Messages
Before you study this section, let us sort out the information it contains so that you can see at a glance how the various subsections relate to each other.
The three aspects of verbal messages that the persuader has to consider are: human emotions, the need to be rational, and the need to show credibility.
(1) Human emotions: here, the persuader has to consider three points, namely people’s needs, attitudes and the desire for consistency in their lives.
(2) Be rational: to present a rational argument, the persuader has to present the recipients with proof to support his or her argument. The types of proof discussed in this section are evidence and reasoning.
(3) Show credibility: the three factors to consider here are the persuader’s expertise, trustworthiness and goodwill.
Consider Human Emotions
In this subsection we look at needs, attitudes and consistency.
Needs: Needs are the basic requirements of life. They can range from the physical need for food and shelter to our need for an overall sense of wellbeing based on some sort of success (for example, passing an examination). The ability to meet people’s needs is one of the best motivators of change. The person who is looking at a new car or stove because he or she needs one immediately is more likely to buy one than the person who is just thinking how nice it would be to own the latest model. An understanding of your recipient’s needs increases your chances of holding their attention and persuading them to do what you would like them to do. The classic theory that outlines basic human needs was developed by Abraham Maslow (1970). Maslow’s theory, which is not difficult to understand, is the need for self-actualisation.
This is explained below:
Self-actualisation is the need to develop our potential as human beings, to achieve our highest goals. Self-actualisaton is the least concrete of all our needs. It includes excelling in the activities you perform, expressing your creativity, and generally feeling that you are growing as an individual. Messages that focus on being “the best that you can be” appeal to self-actualisation
needs, and are often directed at writers, composers, artists, innovators, and campaign leaders. However, whereas all people are motivated by physiological needs, relatively fewer are motivated by safety needs, and the number involved in the other motivations steadily decreases to the top, where considerably few respond to self-actualisation needs. To be an effective persuader, you must bear in mind that, if your recipients have to spend most of their time and energy satisfying their physiological and safety needs, they will have little time left for higher needs. In other words, you have to consider your recipient’s needs before you can persuade them.
How do we use Maslow’s pyramid of needs in a real situation? To persuade your recipients, you need to do two things:
(1) determine which of their needs are not fulfilled or which may stop being fulfilled in the near future; and
(2) find the information or actions that will show them how to cope successfully with the problem. If you were trying to persuade an audience to join your medical aid scheme, for example, your appeal would be to the need for adequate health care. You would point out that the continued satisfaction of this need is threatened by the ever-increasing cost of medical care. You would then present convincing supporting material (proof) to persuade them that your particular medical aid scheme can look after the health care needs of their family. (We will discuss types of proof later on in this section.)
Please note that Maslow’s pyramid of needs reflects his own society and culture. Therefore, ideas from other cultures do not always agree with the order in which Maslow has placed the needs. Also, as Burton and Dimbleby (1995) explain, Maslow’s highest need is the product of a western, industrial, individualized culture where the highest value is placed on self-actualisation – being able to fulfil your personal, physical and emotional needs and desires, and ultimately achieve a sense of independence. But, then, some cultures place the highest value on qualities such as mutual cooperation or equal opportunity for all. In such cultures, repressing your personal needs and desires and focusing on the needs of other people and the community may take the highest place in the hierarchy. Consistency: Research shows that people like their lives to be predictable – we do not like unexpected change. We therefore tend to pay attention to messages that are consistent with our existing attitudes and behaviour and avoid messages that contradict or challenge them. Research also shows that our attitudes and behaviour are either in a state of consonance (balance) or dissonance (imbalance). We will feel dissonance if we are presented with information that is inconsistent with our current attitudes or behaviour. We need to be consistent otherwise
needs, and are often directed at writers, composers, artists, innovators, and campaign leaders. However, whereas all people are motivated by physiological needs, relatively fewer are motivated by safety needs, and the number involved in the other motivations steadily decreases to the top, where considerably few respond to self-actualisation needs. To be an effective persuader, you must bear in mind that, if your recipients have to spend most of their time and energy satisfying their physiological and safety needs, they will have little time left for higher needs. In other words, you have to consider your recipient’s needs before you can persuade them.
How do we use Maslow’s pyramid of needs in a real situation? To persuade your recipients, you need to do two things: (1) determine which of their needs are not fulfilled or which may stop being fulfilled in the near future; and (2) find the information or actions that will show them how to cope successfully with the problem. If you were trying to persuade an audience to join your medical aid scheme, for example, your appeal would be to the need for adequate health care. You would point out that the continued satisfaction of this need is threatened by the ever-increasing cost of medical care. You would then present convincing supporting material (proof) to persuade them that your particular medical aid scheme can look after the health care needs of their family. (We will discuss types of proof later on in this section.)
Please note that Maslow’s pyramid of needs reflects his own society and culture. Therefore, ideas from other cultures do not always agree with the order in which Maslow has placed the needs. Also, as Burton and Dimbleby (1995) explain, Maslow’s highest need is the product of a western, industrial, individualized culture where the highest value is placed on self-actualisation – being able to fulfil your personal, physical and emotional needs and desires, and ultimately achieve a sense of independence. But, then, some cultures place the highest value on qualities such as mutual cooperation or equal opportunity for all. In such cultures, repressing your personal needs and desires and focusing on the needs of other people and the community may take the highest place in the hierarchy. Consistency: Research shows that people like their lives to be predictable – we do not like unexpected change. We therefore tend to pay attention to messages that are consistent with our existing attitudes and behaviour and avoid messages that contradict or challenge them. Research also shows that our attitudes and behaviour are either in a state of consonance (balance) or dissonance (imbalance). We will feel dissonance if we are presented with information that is inconsistent with our current attitudes or behaviour. We need to be consistent otherwise
see also:
how to persuade people
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
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